Era 3

CLASSICAL TRADITIONS, MAJOR RELIGIONS, AND GIANT EMPIRES, 1000 BCE-300 CE

Giving Shape to World History

By 1000 BCE urban civilizations of the Eastern Hemisphere were no longer confined to a few irrigated river plains. World population was growing, interregional trade networks were expanding, and towns and cities were appearing where only farming villages or nomad camps had existed before. Iron-making technology had increasing impact on economy and society. Contacts among diverse societies of Eurasia and Africa were intensifying, and these had profound consequences in the period from 1000 BCE to 300 CE. The pace of change was quickening in the Americas as well. If we stand back far enough to take in the global scene, three large-scale patterns of change stand out. These developments can be woven through the study of particular regions and societies as presented in Standards 1-4, below.

• Classical Civilizations Defined: The civilizations of the irrigated river valleys were spreading to adjacent regions, and new centers of urban life and political power were appearing in rain-watered lands. Several civilizations were attaining their classical definitions, that is, they were developing institutions, systems of thought, and cultural styles that would influence neighboring peoples and endure for centuries.
• Major Religions Emerge: Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism, Brahmanism/ Hinduism, Confucianism, and Daoism all emerged in this period as systems of belief capable of stabilizing and enriching human relations across much of the world. Each of these religions also united peoples of diverse political and ethnic identities and offered fertile avenues of cultural interchange between one region of Afro-Eurasia and another.
• Giant Empires Appear: Multi-ethnic empires became bigger than ever before and royal bureaucracies more effective at organizing and taxing ordinary people in the interests of the state. Empire building in this era also created much larger spheres of economic and cultural interaction. Near the end of the period the Roman and Han empires together embraced a huge portion of the hemisphere, and caravans and ships were relaying goods from one extremity of Eurasia to the other.

Why Study This Era?

• The classical civilizations of this age established institutions and defined values and styles that endured for many centuries and that continue to influence our lives today.
• Six of the world's major faiths and ethical systems emerged in this period and set forth their fundamental teachings.
• Africa and Eurasia together moved in the direction of forming a single world of human interchange in this era as a result of trade, migrations, empire-building, missionary activity, and the diffusion of skills and ideas. These interactions had profound consequences for all the major civilizations and all subsequent periods of world history.
• This was a formative era for many fundamental institutions and ideas in world history, such as universalist religion, monotheism, the bureaucratic empire, the city-state, and the relation of technology to social change. Students' explorations in the social sciences, literature, and contemporary affairs will be enriched by understanding such basic concepts as these.
• This era presents rich opportunities for students to compare empires, religions, social systems, art styles, and other aspects of the past, thus sharpening their understanding and appreciation of the varieties of human experience.

What Students Should Understand

Standard 1: Innovation and change from 1000-600 BCE: horses, ships, iron, and monotheistic faith

A. How state-building, trade, and migrations led to increasingly complex interrelations among peoples of the Mediterranean basin and Southwest Asia [CORE]

B. The emergence of Judaism and the historical significance of the Hebrew kingdoms [CORE]

C. The development of the civilization of Kush in the upper Nile valley and iron technology's contribution to the spread of agricultural societies in Sub-Saharan Africa [RELATED]

D. How pastoral nomadic peoples of Central Asia began to play an important role in world history [RELATED]

Standard 2: The emergence of Aegean civilization and how interrelations developed among peoples of the eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia, 600-200 BCE

A. Achievements and limitations of the democratic institutions that developed in Athens and other Aegean city-states [CORE]

B. Major cultural achievements of Greek civilization [RELATED]

C. The development of the Persian (Achaemenid) Empire and the consequences of its conflicts with the Greeks [RELATED]

D. Alexander of Macedon's conquests and the interregional character of Hellenistic society and culture [CORE]

Standard 3: How major religions and large-scale empires arose in the Mediterranean basin, China, and India, 500 BCE 300 CE

A. The unification of the Mediterranean basin under the Roman empire [CORE]

B. The emergence of Christianity in the context of the Roman empire [CORE]

C. The unification of China under the early imperial dynasties [CORE]

D. Religious and cultural developments in India in the era of the Gangetic states and the Maurya empire [CORE]

Standard 4: The development of early agrarian civilizations in Mesoamerica

A. The achievements of Olmec civilization [CORE]

STANDARD 1

Students Should Understand: Innovation and change from 1000 to 600 BCE: horses, ships, iron, and monotheistic faith.

Students Should Be Able to:

1A Demonstrate understanding of state-building, trade, and migrations that led to increasingly complex interrelations among peoples of the Mediterranean basin and Southwest Asia by:

7-12 Explaining the fundamentals of iron-making technology and analyzing the early significance of iron tools and weapons in Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Describing the extent of the Assyrian and New Babylonian empires and assessing the sources of their power and wealth. [Obtain historical data]

5-12 Explaining the patterns of Phoenician trade, political organization, and culture in the Mediterranean basin. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

5-12 Describing the emergence of Greek city-states in the Aegean region and the political, social, and legal character of the polis. [Marshal evidence of antecedent circumstances]

7-12 Analyzing the factors that led Greeks to found colonies in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. [Analyze multiple causation]

9-12 Analyzing the social and cultural effects of the spread of alphabetic writing in Southwest Asia and the Mediterranean basin. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1A include:

• Locate on a map of the Mediterranean Sea the major Phoenician port cities and colonies such as Carthage, and show the trade routes that linked these cities. Why did the Phoenicians establish cities throughout the Mediterranean? With whom did they trade? What items were traded?
• Make a relief map showing the mountainous Greek peninsula and the major Greek city-states. How did geography influence the location and development of city-states?
• Construct a model or describe a typical Greek polis, including such features as an acropolis, the temple of the patron deity, gymnasium, and agora. Construct a dialogue with a friend in another city, each of you describing your polis and why it is so important to you.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1A include:

• Explain the importance of iron weapons and cavalry in the rise of the Assyrian empire. What were the consequences of this new technology? How do the consequences compare to the consequences of adopting chariot warfare earlier?
• Prepare a map showing the location of the important Greek city-states and colonies established in the Black Sea, northern Africa, and the western Mediterranean basin. Why did the Greeks establish colonies in the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins? Did the se colonies together constitute a Greek empire? What sort of relations did the Greeks have with the Phoenicians?
• Locate the Assyrian and New Babylonian empires on a map of Southwest Asia. What are the geographic features of these two empires? Why were the river valleys so important to these empires?
• Analyze Assyrian bas reliefs and answer the questions: How do these depict hunting, warfare, and the use of weapons? What do these art forms and their subject matter tell us about Assyrian culture and society?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1A include:

• Research the laws of Hammurabi and the role of lawmakers such as Draco and Solon. How do their perspectives suggest differing views on the role of law in society? How did the differences in the societies they lived in influence their views?
• Examine the early Phoenician, Greek, Hebrew, and Etruscan alphabets. Infer connections between the alphabets. How would you account for similarities? What evidence can you give to support your argument? Why was it easier for people to learn an alphabeticsystem of writing than to learn cuneiform or Egyptian hieroglyphics?
• As a 7th- or 6th-century BCE Greek tyrant, compose a proclamation justifying your rule to the inhabitants of the city you rule over.

Students Should Be Able to:

1B Demonstrate understanding of the emergence of Judaism and the historical significance of the Hebrew kingdoms by:

5-12 Explaining the fundamental teachings and practices of Judaism and comparing Jewish monotheism with polytheistic religions of Southwest Asia. [Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas]

7-12 Explaining the development of the Jewish kingdoms and analyzing how the Jews maintained religious and cultural traditions despite the destruction of these kingdoms. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

9-12 Assessing the significance of the Babylonian captivity for the survival of Judaism. [Evidence historical perspectives]

9-12 Analyzing the significance of the Jewish diaspora for the transmission of Judaism in the Mediterranean region and Southwest Asia. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1B include:

• Construct a time line tracing important periods in ancient Hebrew history from the earliest times through the Babylonian captivity. Illustrate the time line with drawings depicting events in Hebrew history. In which of the events you show did religion play an important part?
• Construct a model of King Solomon's temple. What are the central features of the temple complex? What is the role of the temple in Jewish history? Compare Solomon's temple and a Greek temple of the same period. What similarities do you see, and how would you explain them?
• Read selections from the Hebrew Scriptures such as stories about the Creation, Noah, the Tower of Babel, Abraham, the Exodus, the Ten Commandments, David, and Daniel and the Lion's Den. Explain the ethical teachings shown in the stories.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1B include:

• Write an account describing the political and social structure of Israel during the reigns of Kings Saul, David, and Solomon. What political role did the judges play? What were the reasons for discontent during the rule of King David? What were the foreign influences in the kingdom during Solomon's reign? Why did the kingdom split into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah?
• Read selections from the Hebrew Scriptures, including the Torah and Psalms, and analyze the basic beliefs of Judaism: its basis in ethical monotheism; its historic belief in the Covenant between God and the Jewish people; the Torah as the source of Judaism's beliefs, rituals, and laws; and the Torah's ethical injunction, "Do justice, love mercy, and walk humbly with thy God."

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1B include:

• Read selections from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah and prepare a presentation explaining how the Hebrew people were able to preserve their identity during the Babylonian captivity. What effect did the captivity have on the subsequent history of the people and their beliefs?
• Read selections from the Hebrew Scriptures, the Torah, and Hebrew literature before 300 CE. Based on your reading, write an essay on Hebrew culture focusing on its ethical aspects. What values are reflected in Hebrew prescriptions for personal behavior? In what ways did religious beliefs in ethical monotheism support ethical prescriptions for human behavior?
• Trace the dispersion of Jewish communities on a map. Explain the reasons for and the consequences of the Hebrew diaspora. What are the modern implications of the diaspora?
• Chart the differences between the characteristics of Yahweh and his relationship to the Hebrew people on the one hand, and the characteristics of Southwest Asian nature deities and their relationship to their worshipers on the other. Construct a historical argument to account for the differences.

Students Should Be Able to:

1C Demonstrate understanding of how the civilization of Kush developed in the upper Nile valley and how iron technology contributed to the expansion of agricultural societies in Sub-Saharan Africa by:

9-12 Assessing the importance of political, commercial, and cultural relations between Egypt and Nubia/Kush. [Analyze multiple causation]

5-12 Assessing the importance of Nile valley trade as a factor in the rise of the Kushite state in the first millennium BCE. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Evaluating the linguistic, architectural, and artistic achievements of Kush in the Meroitic period. [Interrogate historical data]

7-12 Analyzing how Kushite and Assyrian invasions affected Egyptian society. [Evidence multiple perspectives]

9-12 Describing the Nok culture of West Africa and assessing theories of how iron-using societies emerged in Sub Saharan Africa. [Evaluate major debates among historians]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1C include:

• Locate Egypt and Kush on a map and draw in the geographic features that either assisted or hampered communication between these two kingdoms.
• Analyze pictures of the pyramids in Kush. What do these pyramids seem to suggest about the relationship between Egypt and Kush? What questions would you need to ask to find out whether the relationship suggested really did exist?
• Assume the role of an iron smelter in Kush and explain the process of making iron to a new king. What uses of iron were most important in Kushite society?
• Write an account of the Kushite conquest of Egypt from the point of view of both a Kushite and an Egyptian. In what respects would two such accounts be most likely to differ?

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1C include:

• Assume the role of an artist commissioned to commemorate the conquest of Egypt by the Kushites. Draw a series of pictorial representations of the conquest for a public building in Thebes, the city adopted by the victorious Kushites as their capital.
• Analyze the social and political consequences of economic contacts between Kush and Egypt.

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1C include:

• Debate the question: Was Kush a cultural satellite of Egypt, a distinctive civilization in its own right, or both? What archaeological or other evidence might be used to argue either side of the question?
• Evaluate current theories about the spread of iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa. By what routes is the technology likely to have reached West Africa? What evidence might support the theory of independent development of iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa?
• Analyze illustrations of Nok terra cotta figures and metal implements. What can be inferred from these physical remains about the culture and society of the West African people who created them?
• Construct assessments, based on historical evidence, of Kushite achievements during the Meroitic period, as they might have been composed by contemporaries from societies known to have been in contact with Kush, such as people from the Nile delta, from Sub-Saharan Africa, and Assyria. What would observers from each of these different cultures have been likely to single out as noteworthy among Kushite achievements? Why?

Students Should Be Able to:

1D Demonstrate understanding of how pastoral nomadic peoples of Central Asia began to play an important role in world history by:

5-12 Explaining the relationship between the mastery of horse riding on the steppes and the development of pastoral nomadism and cavalry warfare. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

9-12 Analyzing how the warrior states of the Scythians and the Xiongnu arose among pastoral nomadic peoples of Central Asia. [Analyze multiple causation]

7-12 Inferring from archaeological or other evidence basic characteristics of Scythian or Xiongnu society and culture. [Formulate historical questions]

5-12 Analyzing why relations between pastoral nomadic peoples of Central Asia and major agrarian states of Eurasia involved both conflict and economic interdependence. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1D include:

• Construct a map showing the location and range of pastoral nomadic peoples in the first millennium BCE. How did nomadic groups travel and move their belongings and herds?
• Create a story, a song, or a poem relating the importance of the horse to the pastoral nomadic peoples of Central Asia.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1D include:

• Write an account, based as much as possible on historical evidence, of a day in the life of a pastoral nomadic person of Central Asia. For which parts of your account did you have the most, and the least, abundant and accurate evidence? How would you account for the differences in the availability of evidence?
• Label on a map of the Eastern Hemisphere the great chain of arid regions extending from the Sahara Desert to the Gobi Desert of China. Where did major river valley civilizations exist in relation to this arid belt? How were human communities able to adapt to the environments of these desert and steppe lands? What was the relationship between peoples of the "steppe and the sown"?
• Evaluate the importance of the horse in nomadic life including its use with the chariot, in the cavalry, and as a beast of burden. How did the horse change life on the steppes?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 1D include:

• Analyze drawings or pictures of the remains in the royal Scythian tombs and research archaeological accounts to explain Scythian society and culture.
• Use Scythian and Xiongnu nomads as case studies to explain how the horse facilitated territorial expansion and changed leadership roles. In what ways did leadership among pastoral nomads such as these differ from leadership in settled agricultural communities? What questions would you ask to gain the information you would need should you try to come up with an explanation for the differences?
• Construct a chart showing what pastoral nomadic peoples had to offer that was of value to major agrarian states and vice versa. Hypothesize under what circumstances reciprocal needs and wants would lead to economic interdependence and what other circumstances would lead to conflict. Find information about contacts such as those of the Xiongnu with China and assess how well it supports your hypotheses.

STANDARD 2

Students Should Understand: How Aegean civilization emerged and how interrelations developed among peoples of the eastern Mediterranean and Southwest Asia, 600-200 BCE.

Students Should Be Able to:

2A Demonstrate understanding of the achievements and limitations of the democratic institutions that developed in Athens and other Aegean city-states by:

5-12 Comparing Athenian democracy with the military aristocracy of Sparta. [Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, and institutions]

5-12 Explaining the class divisions of Greek society and the social and political roles of major classes, including slaves. [Evidence historical perspectives]

7-12 Describing the changing political institutions of Athens in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and analyzing the influence of political thought on public life. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

7-12 Analyzing the place of women in Athenian society. [Interrogate historical data]

9-12 Assessing the importance of participatory government in Greek city-states for the development of Western political thought and institutions. [Hypothesize the influence of the past]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2A include:

• Assume the role of either a citizen, a merchant, a foreign resident, or a slave in both Athens and Sparta. Describe your life in each of these city-states. Compare the rights and responsibilities of a citizen in each city. After the class shares their findings, answer the question: How did life differ depending on social class?
• Construct a comparative chart that graphically depicts similarities and differences between Athenian democracy and the military aristocracy of Sparta.
• If you were a woman in the 6th or 5th century BCE, would you rather have lived in Sparta or in Athens? Give reasons based on historical evidence for your decision.
• Create a map of the Aegean area and depict each of the major Greek city-states. Delineate each city-state as to its form of government (democracy, oligarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, monarchy) by a symbol or color. How many other Greek city-states followed the political lead of Athens or Sparta, and how many followed neither?

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2A include:

• Prepare a chart listing the major political systems of Greek city-states in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE and explain the evolution of these governmental systems. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each system?
• Construct a chart showing the major changes in Athenian political organization from the initial monarchy to the forms under Solon and Cleisthenes. What innovations did Cleisthenes make?
• Describe the roles that women had in Athenian society and their rights under the law. Hypothesize why "democracy" was limited to males only.
• Analyze Pericles' Funeral Oration to discern Athenian values during the 5th century BCE. Did daily life in classical Athens reflect these ideals?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2A include:

• Describe the Greek concept of the "barbarian" as set forth in the work of Aristotle and other writers, and explain the position of "barbarians" in Greek city-states. Could a "barbarian" become a Greek? How could the Greek concept of "barbarian" provide a foundation for greater communication between Greeks and outsiders? What is ethnocentrism? Are all modern societies and nations ethnocentric to some degree?
• Analyze selections from The Republic. Prepare a report on how Plato's ideal polis has influenced political thought in the modern world.
• Develop a hypothesis to explain why the maturing of democratic institutions in Greece resulted in greater restrictions on the rights and freedoms of women. What evidence can you give to support your hypothesis?
• Explain the social strata in Athens and Sparta in the 5th century BCE. Choose one of the two, and compare its social structure to that of another Greek city-state such as Corinth or Thebes. How would you account for similarities and differences?
• Draw evidence from Thucydides' Melian Dialogue to examine the concepts of political freedom, national security, and justice. Appraise Pericles' "Funeral Oration" from the perspectiveof a Melian following the Athenian conquest.
• Support or refute the statement: "Athens was the laboratory of democracy and democratic law."

Students Should Be Able to:

2B Demonstrate understanding of the major cultural achievements of Greek civilization by:

5-12 Identifying the major characteristics of Hellenic architecture and sculpture and assessing the ways in which architecture, sculpture, and painting reflected social values and attitudes. [Draw upon visual sources]

7-12 Identifying major works of Greek drama and mythology and assessing how they reflected social values and attitudes. [Formulate historical questions]

9-12 Explaining the leading ideas of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus, and other philosophers and historians. [Evidence historical perspective]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2B include:

• Participate in a role-play of the trial of Socrates. What does the story of Socrates tell us about his values?
• Find local examples of art and architecture that reflect the influence of Classical Greece.
• Read and compare several Greek myths using a source such as Charles and Rosalie Baker's Myths and Legends of Mt. Olympus or Ingri and Edgar Parin d'Aulaire's Book of Greek Myths. How are gods and goddesses depicted in Greek mythology? What is anthropomorphism in relation to Greek mythology and how do Greeks and their gods and goddesses relate in these myths?
• Study photographic evidence of Greek pottery and explain how the images on the pottery reflect life in ancient Greece. With this reference construct a replica of a piece of Greek pottery and illustrate this with scenes from life in your community. How can art reflect culture and values?
• Analyze illustrations of classical Greek sculpture and evaluate them for evidence of social ideals of manhood, womanhood, and athletic prowess.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2B include:

• Read selections from Greek dramatists such as Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus and discuss what evidence they offer of ancient moral values and civic culture.
• Compare creation myths from Sumer, Egypt, Babylon, and Greece and then compare them to the nationalized myths in China. What images of the gods are presented in these myths?What human characteristics do they evidence? What similarities and differences in world view do these myths suggest?
• Examine photographic and other evidences of Greek art and architecture and read selections from Greek literature to determine how the arts reflected cultural traditions and values.

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2B include:

• Present dramatic readings from selections of Greek tragedies and comedies, such as Sophocles' Antigone and Aristophanes' The Clouds. What are the lessons transmitted through Greek tragedy and comedy? How does drama reflect values?
• Compare Egyptian and Sumerian deities with the Greek gods and goddesses. Draw upon visual evidence of deities and humans as depicted in bas reliefs, statues, and monuments to discover how each of these societies saw themselves in relation to their gods and goddesses. What do depictions of goddesses suggest about attitudes toward women? Is there other evidence in Egyptian, Sumerian, and Greek life to support their depiction of goddesses?
• Using contemporary literature such as Dorothy Mills's Book of the Ancient Greeks, Mary Renault's The Mask of Apollo, and the works of Greek playwrights, reconstruct what daily life was like in ancient Greece between 600 and 200 BCE.
• Read excerpts from the introductory sections of Herodotus's and Thucydides' works that reveal their working methods as historians. What would you praise or criticize about them as historians, and why?
• Compare the ideas of Plato and of Aristotle about the most desirable form of government. How closely did the government they considered the best resemble the one they themselves lived under?

Students Should Be Able to:

2C Demonstrate understanding of the development of the Persian (Achaemenid) empire and the consequences of its conflicts with the Greeks by:

5-12 Describing the basic teachings of Zoroastrianism. [Interrogate historical data]

5-12 Explaining the founding, expansion, and political organization of the Persian empire. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

7-12 Analyzing the major events of the wars between Persia and the Greek city-states and the reasons why the Persians failed to conquer the Aegean region. [Analyze multiple causation]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2C include:

• Explain the struggle between good and evil as presented in the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism.
• Create a map of the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean, and indicate the location of the major Greek city-states. Using colored pencils or other delineations, show the growth of the Persian state from the time of Cyrus I through the wars with Greece. What were the geographic advantages of the Persians and the Greeks?
• Explain why Persia wanted to conquer Greece. What were the Achaemenid goals?
• Create maps of the four famous battles in the Persian Wars -- Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. Use different colors for the Spartans, the Athenians, and the Persians. Include a key to indicate what each color means.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2C include:

• Tell the story of the struggle between the Persians and Greeks from different perspectives. Use conflicts such as the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, or Salamis. How were Greeks and Persians likely to have differed in telling this story?
• Devise a plan for the governing of an ethnically diverse empire such as that of the Persians. How effectively did the Persians deal with specific problems related to the vast size of their empire?
• Describe the organization that Darius I (the Great) created, delineating the "chain of command" and explaining the duties of this highly effective construct. Who did the Achaemenids rule and how?
• Compare and contrast the basic ideas and teachings of Zoroastrianism with religious beliefs of the Greeks, Hebrews, and Sumerians. In what ways were these religions inclusive? What was their relationship to the political construct of "their" state?
• Drawing on Jill Paton Walsh's Persian Gold and Crossing to Salamis analyze how the Persian Wars affected the daily lives of the people of ancient Greece. Based on these accounts and others, what are we able to infer about the changes these wars wrought on the lives of the Persian "peoples"?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2C include:

• Read selections from Herodotus's History describing key events of the Persian Wars. Debate the accuracy of his reports. What might indicate a bias in Herodotus's story? What questions would you ask to help decide how reliable his account is?
• Analyze various accounts and histories of Persian rule such as Herodotus and the Book of Esther. To what extent did the Persians respect the cultural traditions and religious beliefs of peoples living within their empire?
• Analyze the basic tenets of Zoroastrianism, the relationship of religion to political entity, and the place of religion within the various levels of Persian society.
• Compare and contrast the Greek city-states' military "establishment" with that of the Persians at the time of the Persian Wars. In what ways did the political makeup of the two antagonists dictate their military organization? What were the overall strategies of these antagonists, and in what ways is this a reflection of their political and military organizations?
• In an essay respond to the statements: "It was not so much Greek military superiority as Persian weakness and demoralization that caused the Persian defeat in these wars! The end result of the Persian Wars clearly established that a small, highly efficient, and well trained and coordinated force will always defeat a much larger but inefficient force." How were the Greek city-states able to defeat the monolithic Persian armies and navies?
• Explain how the victories over Persia led to a restructuring of the Greek political balance, and ultimately, the ruinous internecine Peloponnesian Wars. How do writers such as Thucydides explain the rise and fall of Athens and the Delian League?

Students Should Be Able to:

2D Demonstrate understanding of Alexander of Macedon's conquests and the interregional character of Hellenistic society and culture by:

7-12 Analyzing the rise of Macedonia under Philip II and explaining the campaigns and scope and success of Alexander's imperial conquests. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

5-12 Assessing Alexander's achievements as a military and political leader and analyzing why the empire broke up into successor kingdoms. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Evaluating major achievements of Hellenistic art, philosophy, science, and political thought. [Evidence historical perspectives]

9-12 Assessing the character of Greek impact on Southwest Asia and Egypt in the 4th and 3rd centuries and the influence of Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and Indian cultural traditions on one another. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

9-12 Analyzing the significance of the interaction of Greek and Jewish traditions for the emergence of both Rabbinic Judaism and early Christianity. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2D include:

• Tell the story of The House of Pindar, the Poet of Thebes. How does the story portray Alexander?
• Construct a map tracing the route of Alexander's army through the Persian Empire to India. Indicate major battles that his army fought and cities he founded. How do Alexander's conquests compare in size to that of the original Persian Empire?
• Assume the role of a soldier in Alexander's army and write a letter to a friend describing the peoples and events you encounter during your conquest of the Persian Empire.
• List Hellenistic achievements in astronomy and measurement of the earth. How accurate were these early scientists?
• Identify illustrations of the "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World." Which of these "seven wonders" reflect accomplishments of the Hellenistic period? What would you consider to be the "seven wonders" of the modern world?

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2D include:

• Explain how Alexander of Macedon came to power and built a vast empire. How did Alexander's empire differ from that of the earlier Assyrian, Egyptian, and Persian empires? What methods did Alexander use to unite his empire?
• Compare Greek images of gods such as Apollo, with Indian images of the Buddha from Gandhara and Mathura to assess the cultural impact of Hellenism on Indian art.
• As one of Alexander's generals, Seleucus, Antigonus, or Ptolemy, develop a dialogue to justify ruling part of Alexander's empire.
• Analyze architecture to assess the extent of Greek and Macedonian influence in west Asia after the conquests of Alexander.
• Analyze the major achievements of Hellenistic mathematics, science, and philosophy. In an oral report or written essay, explain the significance of these achievements. What were Indian contributions? What impact have these achievements had on the modern world?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 2D include:

• Draw from the teachings of Socrates, Zeno, Epicurus, and other Greek philosophers to debate the question: What makes for a "good life"?
• Research the status of women during the Hellenistic era. What new opportunities were open to women during this period? What limitations were placed upon them?
• Construct an explanation of the cultural diffusion of art and architecture through assimilation, conquest, migration, and trade. How has Hellenistic art and architecture influenced civilizations in central Asia and the western Mediterranean?
• Construct a balance sheet assessing the benefits and costs of Alexander's conquests. Did his conquests lead to an intermingling of cultures?
• Research Hellenistic religions. Assess the impace of Greek thought on Judaism and the other religions in this period.

STANDARD 3

Students Should Understand: How major religions and large-scale empires arose in the Mediterranean basin, China, and India, 500 BCE-300 CE.

Students Should Be Able to:

3A Demonstrate understanding of the causes and consequences of the unification of the Mediterranean basin under Roman rule by:

5-12 Assessing the contributions of the Etruscans and the western Greek colonies to the development of Roman society and culture. [Analyze multiple causation]

5-12 Describing the political and social institutions of the Roman Republic and analyzing why Rome was transformed from republic to empire. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

5-12 Describing the major phases in the expansion of the empire through the 1st century CE. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

9-12 Assessing ways in which imperial rule over a vast area transformed Roman society, economy, and culture. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Evaluating the major legal, artistic, architectural, technological, and literary achievements of the Romans and the influence of Hellenistic cultural traditions on Roman Europe. [Evidence historical perspectives]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3A include:

• Retell the legends of the founding and early history of Rome such as the fable of Romulus and stories from the Aeneid. What do legends tell us about the beliefs and values of the ancient Romans? How do historians use myths and legends in describing ancient civilizations?
• Locate the different ethnic groups and city-states of the Italian peninsula ca. 509 BCE. Who were the Etruscans and what influence did they have in early Roman history? Where were the Greek settlements located? What influence did they have on the Latins?
• Draw on evidence from David Macaulay's City to reconstruct a typical Roman city and explain the function of the public areas and buildings. Include diagrams of Roman residences and sketches of Roman aqueducts. Find examples of public buildings that use Roman architectural styles. Compare a Roman city to a modern U.S. city. How are these cities different and similar?
• Develop short biographies and sketches of famous Romans such as Cincinnatus, Scipio Africanus, Tiberius Gracchus, Cicero, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Nero, Marcus Aurelius, and Constantine for a class magazine entitled, "Roman Stars." What do the lives of these famous people tell about Roman values? What changes in values can be determined from the early Republic to the last years of the empire?
• Compare the military leadership of famous generals in ancient history such as Alexander of Macedon, Hannibal, and Julius Caesar.
• Draw on stories such as Ellis Dillon's Rome under the Emperors and Chelsea Yarbro's Locadio's Apprentice to discuss what life was like for common people living in Rome. and Pompeii.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3A include:

• Develop an oral account reporting the conclusion of the Punic Wars. Include interviews with important participants, a summary of each war, and an explanation of the importance of these wars to Rome.
• Read selections from Plutarch's Lives of Famous Greeks and Romans on Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. What were the reforms championed by the Gracchi? How did these measures arouse hostility among the great landowners? How did the Senate deal with the Gracchi brothers?
• Construct a comparative study of the status and role of women in Rome and the earlier Greek city-states. Prepare a debate between a Roman woman and one from Periclean Athens in which they discuss their positions in society.
• Develop a set of overlay transparencies or charts to describe the major phases of Roman expansion during this era.
• Use Rosemary Sutcliff's Outcast Song for a Dark Queen to explain the Roman occupation of Britain. What was the nature of the conflict between the British and the Romans?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3A include:

• Compare innovations in ancient military technology such as the Macedonian phalanx, the Roman legion, the Persian cataphract, the Chinese crossbow, and the Greek trireme, and explain how they affected patterns of warfare and empire building.
• Compare Latin and Greek as universal languages of the Roman Empire. What political, cultural, and commercial purposes did these two languages have?
• Read selections from Polybius's treatment of the Roman Constitution. Identify those elements that he describes that influenced the American political system.
• Examine the reign of Augustus and analyze its significance in the transition from Roman Republic to imperial government. Compare the Roman Republic with Imperial Rome. Assess the relative merits of the two types of government. How did one form of government turn into the other? What were the causes and consequences of the change?
• Explain how Rome governed its provinces during the late Republic and the Empire and compare the Roman system with that of the Persians.
• Construct an explanation of the cultural diffusion of Hellenistic arts and architecture upon the Romans. What major Roman artistic and technological achievements were influenced by Hellenistic traditions?

Students Should Be Able to:

3B Demonstrate understanding of the emergence of Christianity in the context of the Roman Empire by:

5-12 Describing the lives of Jesus and Paul and explaining the fundamental teachings of Christianity. [Evidence historical perspectives]

5-12 Analyzing how Christianity spread widely in the Roman Empire. [Analyze multiple causation]

9-12 Tracing the extent and consequences of Christian expansion in Asia, Africa, and Europe to the 4th century. [Reconstruct patterns of historical succession and duration]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3B include:

• Tell the story of the life of Jesus of Nazareth. What did he teach?
• Analyze several of Jesus's parables such as "the good shepherd," "the good Samaritan," or "the prodigal son." What message do these parables illustrate?
• Prepare a short biography of Paul the Apostle and explain how he helped spread Christian beliefs.
• Analyze accounts from the New Testament that describe early Christian principles. What were the morals and values expressed in these teachings?

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3B include:

• Analyze the moral code contained in Jesus's teachings of "love thy neighbor." In what ways did his teachings both confirm the prohibitions of the Ten Commandments in the Hebrew Torah (e.g., you shall not kill, bear false witness, covet your neighbor's possessions) and expand upon them by calling for active commitment to the essential worth and good of others?
• Construct a map locating the centers of the early Christian church in the 1st century CE and the extent of the spread of Christianity by the end of the 4th century CE.
• Explain the impact of Christianity on the Roman Empire. Why did the Romans attempt to destroy Christianity? How did Christians respond to the persecutions? What was the significance of Constantine's conversion to Christianity? Of Theodosius's antipagan legislation in the late 4th century?
• Examine illustrations of early Christian religious art and explain the impact of these mosaics and paintings. Compare to religious art of other ancient civilizations. What are the stories told in these art works? What values do they express?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3B include:

• Compare Jesus's teachings of love of neighbor with Paul's summation, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." How are these teachings connected, in Christianity, to belief in God's love of all humanity and in the equality of all people in the sight of God?
• Christianity in their respective beliefs concerning the Deity: Judaism's basic belief in ethical monotheism; Christianity's continuity with Judaism and its view of the ongoing story of God's relationship with humankind in the Persons of the Father Creator, the Son Redeemer, and the Holy Spirit, always present, supporting, and sustaining.
• Read selections from the lives of early Christian martyrs, such as the Martyrdom of St. Polycarp, and construct an account explaining the role of the martyr in the spread and ultimate success of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
• Examine the teachings Jesus expressed in the Sermon on the Mount and make a summary of his ethical message.
• Compile a listing of the fundamental teachings of Christianity. Which of these teachings is distinctive to Christianity and no other faiths? In which way has the development of Christianity been affected by Hebrew, Greek, Persian, or other influences?
• Map the areas in which there were recorded Christian communities by the end of the 1st century CE, and the areas that were predominantly Christian by the end of the 4th century CE. Who were the people, and what were the events and circumstances that helped the spread of the Christian religion from its location of origin to other parts of Asia and to Africa and Europe during this period?

Students Should Be Able to:

3C Demonstrate understanding of how China became unified under the early imperial dynasties by:

7-12 Assessing the significance of the Zhou dynasty for the development of imperial rule and the concept of the Mandate of Heaven. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

5-12 Assessing the policies and achievements of the Qin emperor Shi Huangdi in establishing a unified imperial realm. [Evaluate the implementation of a decision]

9-12 Analyzing the political and ideological contributions of the Han to the development of the imperial bureaucratic state and the expansion of the empire. [Analyze cause-and effect relationships]

7-12 Evaluating the literary, artistic, and technological achievements of the Han dynasty. [Evidence historical perspectives]

7-12 Analyzing the importance of iron technology and family division of labor on the expansion of agriculture and southeastward migration of Chinese farmers. [Analyze multiple causation]

5-12 Analyzing the commercial and cultural significance of the trans-Eurasian "silk roads." [Interrogate historical data]

5-12 Describing the life of Confucius and explaining comparatively the fundamental teachings of Confucianism and Daoism. [Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3C include:

• Draw upon visual data to evaluate the contents of Shi Huangdi's tomb and the building of the first Great Wall as evidence of the achievements of the Qin period.
• Use excerpts from Chinese folktales to explain what life was like for ordinary people in ancient China.
• Define the Mandate of Heaven and the idea of virtuous rule.
• Use the following three passages expressing the "Golden Rule" and explain how Confucius, Aristotle, and Jesus sought to promote harmony in society. Confucius: "What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others." Aristotle: "We should behave to our friends as we would wish our friends to behave to us." Jesus: "So whatever you wish that men would do to you, do so to them."
• Describe the "silk roads" connecting the Chinese and Roman empires in trade, and assess their impact on these societies and on the peoples of Central Asia through which they passed.
• Use excerpts from Marilee Heyer's The Weaving of a Dream to describe Chinese values and belief systems.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3C include:

• Based on Sima Qian's Records of the Historian, assume the role of an adviser to a Chinese ruler in the 3rd century BCE. Suggest ways the ruler should act toward the nomadic people on the borders of his empire. Should he trade, use military action, forbid any contact, or follow some other policy? Explain your suggestions.
• Use overlays or a series of maps to trace the lands controlled by the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties. Research the methods used by different dynasties to govern the provinces. Compare the Han empire to that of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire at the time of the emperor Trajan.
• Diagram the social hierarchy in China including the scholar-officials, farmers, artisans, merchants, soldiers, women, and slaves. Compare the stratification of Chinese society with that of other ancient societies. What gave people status in China? How was the composition of Chinese society similar to or different from that of other ancient societies?
• Explain how the Zhou used the concept of the "Mandate of Heaven" to justify the overthrow of the Shang dynasty. How does this concept compare with ideas about the power of rulers in other ancient civilizations?
• Create a graphic organizer of Chinese achievements in science, technology, the arts, and practical methods of farming and irrigation. How did these achievements compare with those of the Greeks and Romans?
• Explain the development of iron technology and the family division of labor system. What were the outcomes of technology and collective responsibility systems?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3C include:

• Read selections from texts such as John in the New Testament and the Analects of Confucius, and describe their teachings on living a moral life.
• Stage a debate among a Confucianist, Daoist, and Legalist over which philosophy would end the era of warring states.
• Read selections of Qin laws on penal servitude and debate history's verdict on Shi Huangdi. Was he a cruel tyrant or a great builder?
• Prepare a museum display using illustrations from Chinese art up to the end of the Han dynasty. How does the art reflect the history and philosophy of China during this period?
• Research the role and status of women in the Confucian tradition. Compare the Confucian definition of women's roles with those of Ban Zhao (ca. 45-120 CE) as recorded in Lessons for Women.

Students Should Be Able to:

3D Demonstrate understanding of religious and cultural developments in India in the era of the Gangetic states and the Mauryan Empire by:

7-12 Explaining the major beliefs and practices of Brahmanism in India and how they evolved into early Hinduism. [Evidence historical perspectives]

5-12 Describing the life and teachings of the Buddha and explaining waysin which those teachings were a response to the Brahmanic system. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

9-12 Explaining the growth of the Mauryan Empire in the context of rivalries among Indian states. [Consider multiple perspectives]

5-12 Evaluating the achievements of the emperor Ashoka, and assessing his contribution to the expansion of Buddhism in India. [Evaluate the implementation of a decision]

9-12 Analyzing how Brahmanism responded to the social, political, and theological challenges posed by Buddhism and other reform movements. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Analyzing how Buddhism spread in India, Ceylon, and Central Asia. [Analyze multiple causation]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3D include:

• Analyze excerpts from the Jataka tales. What do the Jataka tales reveal about Buddhist teachings?
• Tell the story of the life of Siddhartha Gautama. Why is he called the Buddha? What are the "four truths" of Buddhism? What values did Buddha teach?
• Assume the role of Ashoka and establish a code of laws to govern your empire. How would Ashoka advise people to treat one another? What laws might Ashoka recommend? How do you think Buddhism influenced Ashoka's ideas?
• Examine selections from Brian Thompson's The Story of Prince Rama and describe how Indian epic stories reflect social values.

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3D include:

• Examine the teachings of the Brahmanic religion using excerpts from the Laws of Manu to determine the ideal social relationships Manu reveals, especially the emphasis on doing one's dharma (appropriate action). What was the Brahmanic justification for these arrangements? What did Buddha offer as alternatives to this structure?
• Analyze several animal stories from the Panchatantra. What advice do they offer people with little power? How could the insights be applied to power struggles between small states? Which of these strategies did Chandragupta Maurya use? How does the advice compare with morals in Aesop's fables?
• Describe the basic features of social relationships during this period, showing how emphasis was placed on group membership, not the individual. How did this affect such institutions as marriage and one's choice of occupation? How did the belief in dharma, one's fundamental duty in life, determine social behavior?
• Read selections from the rock edicts of Ashoka, and analyze what evidence they yield concerning Indian society, religion, and history in the Maurya period. Construct a chart listing the achievements of Ashoka and evaluate his accomplishments. How do these accomplishments compare to those of other ancient leaders such as Alexander of Macedon and the Han emperors of China?
• Trace the expansion of Buddhism and Christianity on an outline map of Eurasia and Africa. What are the similarities and differences between these religions?
• Read the story of Shvetaketu from the Chandogya Upanishad and compare these teachings with the Buddhist idea of nirvana. What does Shvetaketu's father teach his son about Brahman and moksha?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 3D include:

• Draw evidence from literature to compare the roles for women in India, China, and Greece. Use literary works such as the Ramayana, the Chinese Book of Songs, and the plays of Sophocles. Do these works accurately reflect the status of women in ancient India, China, and Greece? What other evidence might be available from which women's roles during this period and in these cultures could be inferred?
• Debate the statement: "Women were better off as Buddhists than they were in Brahmanic society."
• Explain how Buddhist teachings challenged the Brahmanic social system, especially caste, dietary practices, language usage, and the role of women. How did Buddha's reforms contribute to the spread of Buddhism in India and beyond?
• Examine images of the Buddha from Gandharan and Mathura schools of art in India. What evidence is there of Persian or Greek influences on these images?
• Interpret selections from Kautilya's Arthashastra as a source of knowledge of Indian political thought and culture in the Maurya period. What must a ruler do in order to be successful in foreign relations and domestic policy?
• Research how Ashoka's support for Buddhism affected the spread of that religion in India. Compare with the effects of the Roman emperors' tolerance for and support of Christianity on the spread of that faith in the later empire. Would religious beliefs have spread as rapidly without the backing of a strong empire?
• Examine the religious ideas associated with the Upanishads. How did these later books of the Vedas reflect Brahmanic teachings? How do Brahmanic teachings compare with Buddhist teachings?

STANDARD 4

Students Should Understand: How early agrarian civilizations arose in Mesoamerica.

Students Should Be Able to:

4 Demonstrate understanding of the achievements of Olmec civilization by:

5-12 Analyzing the relationship between maize cultivation and the development of complex societies in Mesoamerica. [Analyze cause-and-effect relationships]

7-12 Interpreting archaeological evidence for the development of Olmec civilization in the second millennium BCE. [Formulate historical questions]

5-12 Evaluating major Olmec contributions to Mesoamerican civilization, including the calendar, glyphic writing, sculpture, and monumental building. [Evidence historical perspectives]

9-12 Assessing Olmec cultural influence on the emergence of civilization in the Oaxaca valley or other regions. [Analyze multiple causation]

Grades 5-6 Examples of student achievement of Standard 4 include:

• Construct a topographical map of Mesoamerica. How did various features of geography influence Olmec civilization?
• Create a Venn diagram comparing the religion, social class structure, and monumental architecture of the Olmec and Egyptian civilizations. As a historian, what questions would you ask to help explain reasons for the similarities and differences?
• Research the land of the Olmec, including the nature of the soil, and plant and animal life. Become "a Farmer for a Day," and describe in words and/or pictures your experiences. What plants do you cultivate, and how? What animals are part of your daily life? What problems do you have, and what solutions to them do you try? How is it that information about the daily life of an Olmec farmer is known to American students today?
• Compare the way people in the Olmec ritual centers relied on flooding rivers with how people in the Nile civilization relied on the inundations of the Nile. How did the flooding rivers contribute to centralized power in both areas?

Grades 7-8 Examples of student achievement of Standard 4 include:

• Construct a ground plan or a model of an Olmec city, such as La Venta or San Lorenzo. Explain what the ground plan of the buildings and ball courts might reveal about the Olmec people. What questions do you have about the Olmec that could not be answered based on the evidence of ground plans alone?
• Explain the importance of maize to the Olmec civilization. What methods of farming were used? How did farming in Mesoamerica differ from that of other agrarian societies in the ancient world?
• Suppose that archaeologists found a stone sculpture in a new site all by itself. The presence of what features would lead them to label the sculpture as "Olmec"?
• Make posters of Olmec farming methods. Evaluate their demographical and environmental impact. What connections can you make between Olmec agriculture and the development of Olmec society? In what ways are agricultural strategies such as the chinampas (floating gardens) sound ecologically? Are they still used? Why or why not?
• Examine pictures of the Olmec monumental stone heads. What can you infer about the type of political and economic control needed to produce this monumental sculpture? Why did people ritually mutilate these heads?

Grades 9-12 Examples of student achievement of Standard 4 include:

• Having examined archaeological and historical records, explain the political, economic, and social structure of Olmec society. How can we give an accurate record of the development of the Olmec civilization without having deciphered their written records?
• Research the archaeological or pictorial evidence available to support the hypothesis that the Olmecs had cultural influences on the development of Zapotec and Mayan civilizations. What role can trade play in the diffusion of culture?
• Plan a museum exhibit of Olmec archaeological finds. Write labels for the various objects you include in the exhibit and explain how they reflect how people lived and worked in Olmec communities. What can be inferred about Olmec beliefs from the objects in your exhibition? How would you change the exhibition if your aim was to show "the development of Olmec civilization"?
• Debate the validity of the statement that the Olmec were the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica.